The Caliphate So Far: From Abu Bakr to Abdul Malik
When the Prophet Muhammad passed away, the leadership of the Muslim community passed to Abu Bakr. Almost immediately, several Arab tribes broke away, refusing to pay zakat or acknowledge the authority of the new Caliph. Abu Bakr responded decisively. With the military brilliance of Khalid ibn Waleed, he launched the Ridda Wars, crushing the rebellion and reuniting nearly all of Arabia under Islam.
Once Arabia was stable, Abu Bakr turned outward. He ordered Khalid to invade Persia and sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah into Syria. Khalid’s campaign in Persia was swift and effective, capturing much of southern Iraq. Syria, however, proved more difficult, prompting Abu Bakr to redirect Khalid to support that front as well. Shortly after, Abu Bakr died—only two years into his caliphate—and was succeeded by Umar ibn al-Khattab.
Umar made bold changes. One of his first decisions was to dismiss Khalid as commander, despite the general’s popularity and record. Still, the conquests continued. Under Umar’s leadership, the Muslims captured all of Syria, shattered the once-mighty Sassanid Empire, and pushed into Anatolia. Amr ibn al-As, with Umar’s approval, marched into Egypt and took Alexandria, laying the groundwork for what would become Cairo.
But Umar’s era came to a tragic end when he was assassinated by a disgruntled Persian slave. The next Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan—from the Umayyad clan—ruled for twelve years. His first six years were peaceful. But then cracks began to show. The rapid conquests slowed, reducing the influx of wealth. Tribal tensions, especially in garrison cities like Kufah and Basra, began to simmer. Accusations of nepotism and mismanagement mounted. Eventually, Uthman was assassinated in Medina by rebels who also injured his wife.
In the chaos that followed, Ali ibn Abi Talib was selected as the next Caliph. But not everyone accepted his authority. Muawiyyah, the powerful governor of Syria and Uthman’s cousin, refused to pledge allegiance. Aisha, the Prophet’s widow, also opposed Ali and led a force to Basra, challenging his rule. This resulted in the Battle of the Camel—the first major internal Muslim conflict. Ali won, but his reputation was marred for having fought fellow Muslims, especially the Prophet’s wife.
Ali then moved the capital to Kufah and prepared for conflict with Muawiyyah. The confrontation escalated into full-scale civil war. To make matters worse, a radical group known as the Khawarij turned against both leaders, believing all Muslim rulers had deviated from the faith. They were especially active in Iraq and Persia, making them a bigger problem for Ali than for Muawiyyah.
In the end, a Kharijite assassinated Ali. Muawiyyah swiftly consolidated power and declared himself Caliph, bringing a measure of stability back to the Caliphate. However, his rule wasn’t without controversy. He appointed harsh governors over Iraq—fueling resentment among the Shi’a—and made his son, Yazid, his successor, marking the start of dynastic rule.
Yazid’s reign began with turmoil. Two prominent figures refused to recognize him: Abdullah ibn Zubayr and Husayn ibn Ali. Encouraged by letters from Kufah, Husayn left Mecca with his family to claim leadership. But he was intercepted by Yazid’s forces at Karbala, where he and most of his male relatives were slaughtered. This tragedy outraged many Muslims, especially in Medina.
Soon after, Medina itself rebelled. Yazid’s forces brutally crushed the city in what became known as the Massacre of al-Harrah, even killing companions of the Prophet. The army then marched on Mecca, where Ibn Zubayr had begun asserting authority. During the siege, the Kaaba was damaged, but the attack was called off when Yazid died in Damascus.
His son, Muawiyyah II, briefly succeeded him but died within months, leaving the Caliphate in disarray.
Seizing the moment, Ibn Zubayr declared himself Caliph and gained support in Mecca, Medina, Egypt, and parts of Iraq. But he failed to secure Syria, where the Umayyads regrouped and appointed Marwan ibn al-Hakam—a former secretary of Uthman—as their new leader.
Marwan reclaimed Syria and then recaptured Egypt. In Iraq, Ibn Zubayr faced a fractured population divided between his supporters, the Umayyads, the Shi’a, and the Khawarij. His influence there remained tenuous.
In Kufah, the Shi’a wanted no part of Ibn Zubayr’s rule. A group called “The Penitents” attempted to avenge Husayn but were quickly wiped out. Their survivors then rallied behind Mukhtar ibn Ubaid, who seized Kufah and launched a purge against those responsible for Karbala. Mukhtar’s forces even defeated a Umayyad army and killed Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad, the man who had ordered Husayn’s death.
But Mukhtar overreached. He failed to take Basra, and Ibn Zubayr sent his brother Mus’ab to bring him down. Mus’ab rallied support from Basra, defeated Mukhtar, and retook Kufah—effectively destroying the Shi’a military presence in Iraq.
Yet Ibn Zubayr’s position remained unstable. He faced resistance from the Khawarij in Iraq, Persia, and even Arabia. The decisive blow came when Abdul Malik ibn Marwan, Marwan’s son, launched a campaign to retake Iraq. In 72 AH, he defeated Mus’ab at the Battle of Maskin, giving the Umayyads control over Iraq.
Abdul Malik then dispatched Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, his ruthless general, to lay siege to Mecca. Ibn Zubayr refused to surrender. Eventually, he was defeated and killed.
With his death, the Muslim world was once again unified—this time under Abdul Malik ibn Marwan and the restored Umayyad dynasty.
